Databases, Systems & Networks

Linux operating system and many applications create special files commonly referred to as « logs » to record their operational events. These system logs or application-specific log files are an essential tool when it comes to understanding and troubleshooting the behavior of the operating system and third-party applications. However, log files are not precisely what you would call « light » or « easy » reading, and analyzing raw log files by hand is often time-consuming and tedious. For that reason, any utility that can convert raw log files into a more user-friendly log digest is a great boon for sysadmins.

logwatch is an open-source log parser and analyzer written in Perl, which can parse and convert raw log files into a structured format, making a customizable report based on your use cases and requirements. In logwatch, the focus is on producing more easily consumable log summary, not on real-time log processing and monitoring. As such, logwatch is typically invoked as an automated cron task with desired time and frequency, or manually from the command line whenever log processing is needed. Once a log report is generated, logwatch can email the report to you, save it to a file, or display it on the screen.

A logwatch report is fully customizable in terms of verbosity and processing coverage. The log processing engine of logwatch is extensible, in a sense that if you want to enable logwatch for a new application, you can write a log processing script (in Perl) for the application’s log file, and plug it under logwatch.

One downside of logwatch is that it does not include in its report detailed timestamp information available in original log files. You will only know that a particular event was logged in a requested range of time, and you will have to access original log files to get exact timing information.

Installing Logwatch

On Debian and derivatives:

# aptitude install logwatch

On Red Hat-based distributions:

# yum install logwatch

Configuring Logwatch

During installation, the main configuration file (logwatch.conf) is placed in /etc/logwatch/conf. Configuration options defined in this file override system-wide settings defined in /usr/share/logwatch/default.conf/logwatch.conf.

If logwatch is launched from the command line without any arguments, the custom options defined in /etc/logwatch/conf/logwatch.conf will be used. However, if any command-line arguments are specified with logwatch command, those arguments in turn override any default/custom settings in /etc/logwatch/conf/logwatch.conf.

In this article, we will customize several default settings of logwatch by editing /etc/logwatch/conf/logwatch.conf file.

Detail = <Low, Med, High, or a number>

« Detail » directive controls the verbosity of a logwatch report. It can be a positive integer, or High, Med, Low, which correspond to 10, 5, and 0, respectively.

MailTo = [email protected]

« MailTo » directive is used if you want to have a logwatch report emailed to you. To send a logwatch report to multiple recipients, you can specify their email addresses separated with a space. To be able to use this directive, however, you will need to configure a local mail transfer agent (MTA) such as sendmail or Postfix on the server where logwatch is running.

Range = <Yesterday|Today|All>

« Range » directive specifies the time duration of a logwatch report. Common values for this directive are Yesterday, Today or All. When « Range = All » is used, « Archive = yes » directive is also needed, so that all archived versions of a given log file (e.g., /var/log/maillog, /var/log/maillog.X, or /var/log/maillog.X.gz) are processed.

Besides such common range values, you can also use more complex range options such as the following.

• Range = « 2 hours ago for that hour »
• Range = « -5 days »
• Range = « between -7 days and -3 days »
• Range = « since September 15, 2014 »
• Range = « first Friday in October »
• Range = « 2014/10/15 12:50:15 for that second »

To be able to use such free-form range examples, you need to install Date::Manip Perl module from CPAN. Refer to this post for CPAN module installation instructions.

« Service » option specifies one or more services to monitor using logwath. All available services are listed in /usr/share/logwatch/scripts/services, which cover essential system services (e.g., pam, secure, iptables, syslogd), as well as popular application services such as sudo, sshd, http, fail2ban, samba. If you want to add a new service to the list, you will have to write a corresponding log processing Perl script, and place it in this directory.

If this option is used to select specific services, you need to comment out the line « Service = All » in /usr/share/logwatch/default.conf/logwatch.conf.

Format = <text|html>

« Format » directive specifies the format (e.g., text or HTML) of a logwatch report.

Output = <file|mail|stdout>

« Output » directive indicates where a logwatch report should be sent. It can be saved to a file (file), emailed (mail), or shown to screen (stdout).

Lire la suite…

Packet Analyzer: efficient network traffic analysis

tcpdump command is also called as packet analyzer.

tcpdump command will work on most flavors of unix operating system. tcpdump allows us to save the packets that are captured, so that we can use it for future analysis. The saved file can be viewed by the same tcpdump command. We can also use open source software like wireshark to read the tcpdump pcap files.

In this tcpdump tutorial, let us discuss some practical examples on how to use the tcpdump command.

1. Capture packets from a particular ethernet interface using tcpdump -i

When you execute tcpdump command without any option, it will capture all the packets flowing through all the interfaces. -i option with tcpdump command, allows you to filter on a particular ethernet interface.

$ tcpdump -i eth1
14:59:26.608728 IP xx.domain.netbcp.net.52497 > valh4.lell.net.ssh: . ack 540 win 16554
14:59:26.610602 IP resolver.lell.net.domain > valh4.lell.net.24151:  4278 1/0/0 (73)
14:59:26.611262 IP valh4.lell.net.38527 > resolver.lell.net.domain:  26364  PTR? 244.207.104.10.in-addr.arpa. (45)

In this example, tcpdump captured all the packets flows in the interface eth1 and displays in the standard output.

Note: Editcap utility is used to select or remove specific packets from dump file and translate them into a given format.

2. Capture only N number of packets using tcpdump -c

When you execute tcpdump command it gives packets until you cancel the tcpdump command. Using -c option you can specify the number of packets to capture.

$ tcpdump -c 2 -i eth0
listening on eth0, link-type EN10MB (Ethernet), capture size 96 bytes
14:38:38.184913 IP valh4.lell.net.ssh > yy.domain.innetbcp.net.11006: P 1457255642:1457255758(116) ack 1561463966 win 63652
14:38:38.690919 IP valh4.lell.net.ssh > yy.domain.innetbcp.net.11006: P 116:232(116) ack 1 win 63652
2 packets captured
13 packets received by filter
0 packets dropped by kernel

The above tcpdump command captured only 2 packets from interface eth0.

Note: Mergecap and TShark: Mergecap is a packet dump combining tool, which will combine multiple dumps into a single dump file. Tshark is a powerful tool to capture network packets, which can be used to analyze the network traffic. It comes with wireshark network analyzer distribution.

3. Display Captured Packets in ASCII using tcpdump -A

The following tcpdump syntax prints the packet in ASCII.

$ tcpdump -A -i eth0
tcpdump: verbose output suppressed, use -v or -vv for full protocol decode
listening on eth0, link-type EN10MB (Ethernet), capture size 96 bytes
14:34:50.913995 IP valh4.lell.net.ssh > yy.domain.innetbcp.net.11006: P 1457239478:1457239594(116) ack 1561461262 win 63652
E.....@.@..]..i...9...*.V...]...P....h....E...>{..U=...g.
......G..7 KA....A...L.
14:34:51.423640 IP valh4.lell.net.ssh > yy.domain.innetbcp.net.11006: P 116:232(116) ack 1 win 63652
E.....@[email protected]...*.V..*]...P....h....7......X..!....Im.S.g.u:*..O&....^#Ba...
E..(R.@.|.....9...i.*...]...V..*P..OWp........

Note: Ifconfig command is used to configure network interfaces

Lire la suite…

rsync stands for remote sync.

rsync is used to perform the backup operation in UNIX / Linux.

rsync utility is used to synchronize the files and directories from one location to another in an effective way. Backup location could be on local server or on remote server.

Important features of rsync

• Speed: First time, rsync replicates the whole content between the source and destination directories. Next time, rsync transfers only the changed blocks or bytes to the destination location, which makes the transfer really fast.
• Security: rsync allows encryption of data using ssh protocol during transfer.
• Less Bandwidth: rsync uses compression and decompression of data block by block at the sending and receiving end respectively. So the bandwidth used by rsync will be always less compared to other file transfer protocols.
• Privileges: No special privileges are required to install and execute rsync

Syntax

$ rsync options source destination

Source and destination could be either local or remote. In case of remote, specify the login name, remote server name and location.

Example 1. Synchronize Two Directories in a Local Server

To sync two directories in a local computer, use the following rsync -zvr command.

$ rsync -zvr /var/opt/installation/inventory/ /root/temp
building file list ... done
sva.xml
svB.xml
.
sent 26385 bytes  received 1098 bytes  54966.00 bytes/sec
total size is 44867  speedup is 1.63
$

In the above rsync example:

• -z is to enable compression
• -v verbose
• -r indicates recursive

Now let us see the timestamp on one of the files that was copied from source to destination. As you see below, rsync didn’t preserve timestamps during sync.

$ ls -l /var/opt/installation/inventory/sva.xml /root/temp/sva.xml
-r--r--r-- 1 bin  bin  949 Jun 18  2009 /var/opt/installation/inventory/sva.xml
-r--r--r-- 1 root bin  949 Sep  2  2009 /root/temp/sva.xml

Example 2. Preserve timestamps during Sync using rsync -a

rsync option -a indicates archive mode. -a option does the following,

• Recursive mode
• Preserves symbolic links
• Preserves permissions
• Preserves timestamp
• Preserves owner and group

Now, executing the same command provided in example 1 (But with the rsync option -a) as shown below:

$ rsync -azv /var/opt/installation/inventory/ /root/temp/
building file list ... done
./
sva.xml
svB.xml
.
sent 26499 bytes  received 1104 bytes  55206.00 bytes/sec
total size is 44867  speedup is 1.63
$

As you see below, rsync preserved timestamps during sync.

$ ls -l /var/opt/installation/inventory/sva.xml /root/temp/sva.xml
-r--r--r-- 1 root  bin  949 Jun 18  2009 /var/opt/installation/inventory/sva.xml
-r--r--r-- 1 root  bin  949 Jun 18  2009 /root/temp/sva.xml

Lire la suite…

Source: Akamai

iptables is an application that allows users to configure specific rules that will be enforced by the kernel’s netfilter framework. It acts as a packet filter and firewall that examines and directs traffic based on port, protocol and other criteria. This guide will focus on the configuration and application of iptables rulesets and will provide examples of ways they are commonly used.

By default, the iptables tool is included with your Linode-supplied distribution. In order to use iptables, you will need root (sudo) privileges.

Use Linux iptables to Manage IPv4 Traffic

The iptables Command

Many options can be used with the iptables command. As stated above, iptables sets the rules that control network traffic. You can define different tables to handle these rules through chains, lists of rules that match a subset of packets. The table contains a variety of built-in chains, but you can add your own.

Basic iptables Parameters and Syntax

Before we begin creating rules, let’s review the syntax of an iptables rule.

For example, the following command adds a rule to the beginning of the chain that will drop all packets from the address 198.51.100.0:

iptables -I INPUT -s 198.51.100.0 -j DROP

The sample command above:

1. Calls the iptables program
2. Uses the -I option for insertion. Using a rule with the insertion option will add it to the beginning of a chain and will be applied first. To indicate a specific placement in the chain, you may also use a number with the -I option.
3. The -s parameter, along with the IP address (198.51.100.0), indicates the source.
4. Finally, the -j parameter stands for jump. It specifies the target of the rule and what action will be performed if the packet is a match.

Lire la suite…

Using ipset to block many IP addresses

I was sponsoring an upload of ipset to Debian the other day. This reminded me of ipset, a very cool program as I am going to show. It makes administering related netfilter (that is: firewall) rules easy along with a good performance. This is achieved by changing how rules match in iptables. Traditionally, an iptables rule matches a single network identity, for example a single IP address or a single network only. With ipsets you can operate on a bunch of (otherwise unrelated) addresses at once easily. If you happen to need bulk actions in your firewall, for example you want to blacklist a long list of IP addresses at once, you will love IP sets. I promise.

Drawbacks of netfilter

IP sets do exist for a longer time, however they made it into the upstream Linux kernel as of version 2.6.39. That means Debian Wheezy will support it as is; for Debian Squeeze you can either use a backported kernel or compile yourself the module shipped in the ipset-source package. In any case you additionally need the command line utilities named ipset. Thus, install that package before you can start. Having that said, Squeeze users should note the ipset syntax I am demonstrating below slightly differs from the syntax supported by the Squeeze utilities. The big picture remains the same, though.

IP utils do not conflict with iptables, but extend it in a useful way. You can combine both as you like. In fact, you still need iptables to turn IP sets into something really useful. Nonetheless you will be hitting iptables‘ limitation soon if you exceed a certain number of rules. You can combine as many conditions within a filter rule as you like, however you can only specify a single pattern for each condition. You figure, this does not scale very well if a pattern to match against does not follow a very tight definition such as a CIDR pattern.

This means you can happily filter whole network blocks such as 192.168.0.0/24 (which translates to 255 hosts) in iptables, but there is no way to specify a particular not specially connected set of IP addresses within this range if it cannot be expressed with a CIDR prefix. For example, there is no way to block, say, 192.168.0.5, 192.168.0.100 and 192.168.0.220 in a single statement only. You really need to declare three rules which only differ by the IP address. Pretend, you want to prevent these three addresses from accessing your host. You would probably do something like this:

iptables -A INPUT -s 192.168.0.5 -p TCP -j REJECT
iptables -A INPUT -s 192.168.0.100 -p TCP -j REJECT
iptables -A INPUT -s 192.168.0.220 -p TCP -j REJECT

Alternatively you could do

iptables -A INPUT -s 192.168.0.0/24 -p TCP -j REJECT

but this would block 251 unrelated hosts, too. Not a good deal I’d say. Now, while the former alternative is annoying, what’s the problem with it? The problem is: It does not scale. Netfilter rules work like a fall-through trapdoor. This means whenever a packet enters the system, it passes through several chains and in each of these chains, netfilter checks all rules until either one rule matches or there are no rules left. In the latter case the default action applies. In netfilter terminology a chain determines when an interception to the regular packet flow occurs. In the example above the specified chain is INPUT, which applies to any incoming packet.

In the end this means every single packet which is sent to your host needs to be checked whether it matches the patterns specified in every rule of yours. And believe me, in a server setup, there are lots of packets flowing to your machine. Consider for example a single HTTP requests, which requires at very least four packets sent from a client machine to your web server. Thus, each of these packets is passing through your rules in your INPUT chain as a bare minimum, before it is eventually accepted or discarded.

This requires a substantial computing overhead for every rule you are adding to your system. This isn’t so much of a problem if you haven’t many rules (for some values of “many” as I am going to show). However, you may end up in a situation where you end up with a large rule set. For example, if you suffer from a DDoS attack, you may be tempted to block drone clients in your firewall (German; Apache2. Likewise: for Lighttpd). In such a situation you will need to add thousands of rules easily.

Being under attack, the performance of your server is poor already. However, by adding many rules to your firewall you are actually further increasing computing overhead for every request significantly. To illustrate my point, I’ve made some benchmarks. Below you find the response times of a HTTP web server while doing sequential requests for a single file of 10 KiB in size. I am explaining my measurement method in detail further below. For now, look the graph. It shows the average response time of an Apache 2 web server, divided into four parts:

• connect time: this is the time passed by until the server completed the initial TCP handshake
• send time: this is the time passed by which I needed to reliably send a HTTP request over the established TCP connection reliably (that means: one packet sent and waiting for acknowledged by the server)
• first byte: this is time passed by until the server sent the first byte from the corresponding HTTP response
• response complete: this is time passed by until the server sent all of the remaining bytes of the corresponding HTTP response (remaining HTTP header + 10 KiB of payload)

Lire la suite…